DeathTron+I

The first chapter of //Traditions and Encounters// sets the stage for the drama of world history by presenting the major milestones in the development of humans from their earliest appearance on earth to the dawn of civilization. This chapter addresses the physical evolution of the species and their migrations throughout the globe as well as the revolutionary transformation from all humans surviving by hunting and gathering to the majority living in agricultural societies. The results of this remarkable transformation include 2
 * An unprecedented population explosion due to the increase in the food supply
 * Permanent settlement in villages and, later, in cities
 * The specialization of labor, which led to the development of craft industries and other professions
 * The opportunity to accumulate wealth and the resulting emergence of social class differences
 * The development of fertility-based religions and the increasing elaboration of religious institutions

Because of the agricultural transition, societies could sustain larger populations and could become increasingly complex. Thus urban societies emerged in the fourth millennium B.C.E., particularly in the region known as Mesopotamia ("the land between the rivers") along the fertile river valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates. Some of the world's earliest cities developed and prospered in that region. Mesopotamian prosperity and sophisticated culture attracted many migrants and influenced many neighbors, including the Hebrews, the Phoenicians, and the Indo-Europeans. Some of the characteristics of Mesopotamian societies were 3 Cultivation and domestication of animals transformed African cultures, like cultures in southwest Asia, into distinctive societies with more formal states, specialized labor, and more elaborate cultural traditions. The region around the Nile River, Egypt to the north and Nubia to the south, supported the fastest growing and most complex societies in Africa. These societies were noted for their At the same time that Egypt and Nubia were becoming increasingly complex societies, the Bantu-speaking peoples to the south were undertaking gradual migrations from their homeland in west central Africa and displacing or intermingling with the foraging peoples of the forests. These migrations, and others, helped to spread both agricultural technology and, after 1000 B.C.E., iron metallurgy throughout sub-Saharan Africa. 4
 * The establishment of governmental institutions to provide order and stability and to resolve disputes. These institutions evolved into hereditary kingships and, at times, into empires when states sought to expand their dominion to neighboring lands.
 * The emergence of social classes as the result of specialization of labor and accumulation of wealth. The agricultural surplus and the accompanying specialization allowed individuals and groups to produce goods of high quality. The desire for these goods, in turn, helped to stimulate trade with other societies, greatly expanding intercultural contact.
 * Distinctive cultural traditions that developed including a system of writing that would endure for thousands of years and more elaborate religious institutions than had previously existed.
 * Centralized political authority embodied in the absolute ruler the pharaoh in Egypt and the person of the King in the region of Kush (Nubia)
 * Imperialist expansion in the second millennium B.C.E. as the Egyptian army pushed into Palestine, Syria, and north Africa and south into Nubia and as the Kushites later conquered Egypt and expanded their influence to the south
 * Highly stratified and patriarchal societies based on an agricultural economy
 * Development of industries, transportation, and trade networks that facilitated economic growth and the intermingling of cultural traditions
 * Writing systems: hieroglyphic, hieratic, demotic, and Coptic scripts in Egypt and the yet-to-be-translated Meroitic inscriptions in Nubia
 * Organized religious traditions that include worship of Amon and Re, sun gods, the cult of Osiris, pyramid building, and in Egypt, mummification of the dead

An agricultural economy and its accompanying neolithic communities emerged on the Indian subcontinent some time after 7000 B.C.E. Eventually some of the neolithic villages further evolved into urban societies. The earliest such society was Dravidian and was known as the Harappan society. It flourished along the Indus River valley in the third millennium B.C.E. Coinciding with the decline of the Harappan society, large numbers of Indo-European migrants were moving into India from central Asia beginning around 1900 B.C.E. These peoples, known as Aryans, brought with them cultural traditions sharply different from the earlier societies. After a period of turmoil the Aryan and Dravidian cultures merged to generate a distinctive Indian society characterized by 5 The cultures of east Asia had relatively little direct contact with the complex societies to the west; nevertheless, powerful states (the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties), sophisticated technologies, and highly stratified societies developed along the banks of the Yellow and Yangzi rivers in China. These early societies were built on a foundation that would endure for millennia, some of the significant components of which include
 * Regional states with kingship (//rajas//) as the most common form of government.
 * The caste system, a complex social class system that served as a vehicle for imparting a powerful sense of group identity, as a stabilizing influence in Indian society and as a foundation for the religious belief system.
 * A distinctive set of religious beliefs encompassing the doctrines of samsara and karma along with the notion of a universal soul, or Brahman.
 * A rich literary religious tradition based on centuries of oral transmission that included such classics as the Vedas and the Upanishads.
 * The belief in the principle that the emperor was granted the power to rule through "the mandate of heaven." Thus the emperor, known as the son of heaven, served as a crucial link between the heavenly powers and the people on earth.
 * The extended family as the primary institution of society. The patriarchal head of the family wielded tremendous power and shouldered great responsibilities. It was his job to see that appropriate religious rituals were observed in the worship of the family's departed ancestors. Those ancestors were believed to have control over the living family's well-being.
 * A writing system that spread widely throughout China and still persists in its basic form, although modified through time. Consequently Chinese society has experienced a virtually uninterrupted literary tradition.
 * Sharp distinctions and clearly defined roles within the society based on class, gender, and age.

6 The cultures of the Americas and Oceania developed in relative isolation to the other early complex societies. Nevertheless, they too developed an agricultural base sufficient to support growing populations, specialized labor, political institutions, diverse societies, and long-distance trading networks. Less is known of these cultures than those in other parts of the world primarily because either writing systems did not develop or written documents perished or were destroyed. The fragments of writing and archeological findings indicate that these societies were complex and developed rich cultural traditions. The early societies in the Americas The early societies of Oceania 7 This chapter describes the series of empires that arose in Persia (modern-day Iran) and controlled much of the territory between the Mediterranean Sea and India for over one thousand years, from about 550 B.C.E. through 650 C.E. The first empire, founded by Cyrus the Achaemenid, expanded under him and his successors until it became the largest empire the world had ever seen. The four Persian dynasties of this era (Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanid) were noted for several important developments. 8 This chapter explores the unification and expansion of China during the Qin and Han dynasties (221 B.C.E. to 220 C.E.). A rich tradition of the social and political philosophies of Confucians, Daoists, and Legalists was the foundation on which these and later dynasties rested. Some of the significant elements contributing to the unification of China in this period were 9 This chapter addresses the significant developments in classical India between about 520 B.C.E. and 550 C.E. during which two influential empires emerged in northern India: the Maurya and the Gupta. Although these two state systems were not permanent, they contributed to the growth of long-distance trading networks, the consolidation of cultural traditions, and the promotion of several significant religions. More specifically, India, during this period of one thousand years or so, witnessed the following important developments. 10 Although the Greeks did not build a centralized state until the short reign of Alexander of Macedon, they did serve to link the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions through colonization, commerce, and cultural interaction. Through their unprecedented abilities as sea traders, and later through the unification provided by the Hellenistic empires, the Greeks left a rich cultural legacy of politics, philosophy, art, literature, and science that would go on to shape the European and Islamic worlds for centuries. Some of the enduring innovations for which the classical Greek cultures are best known include 11 This chapter traces the growth and development of Rome from its humble beginnings on the banks of the Tiber River through its republican phase and its transformation into a sprawling, cosmopolitan empire encompassing much of Europe and northern Africa. A tight administrative structure and organized trade network promoted the movement of people, goods, and ideas throughout the empire. The Romans had a significant impact on later Mediterranean, European, and southwest Asian cultures. These influences include, but are not limited to,
 * Built elaborate ceremonial centers that reflected both a complex religion and a powerful political authority
 * Left a rich artistic legacy that included pottery, sculpture, metalwork, and painting
 * Developed sophisticated knowledge of astronomy and mathematics
 * Saw the gradual dissemination of agricultural technology spread by Austronesian seafarers who traded and settled throughout the Pacific
 * Formed a well-integrated society known as Lapita that stretched from New Guinea to Tonga
 * Tightly governed administration with networks of educated bureaucrats, tax collectors, and spies to maintain the order and the authority of the emperor
 * The development of //qanats//, underground canals, to support the economic foundation of the empires: agriculture
 * Sophisticated policies promoting long-distance trade such as standardized coinage, road building, a courier service, accessible marketplaces, and banks and investment companies
 * The emergence and elaboration of Zoroastrianism, a popular and influential religion whose teachings demanded high moral and ethical standards
 * The building of a centralized bureaucracy staffed with professionals educated in Confucian thought and values
 * A prosperous economy based on technological and industrial development and long-distance trade
 * The standardization of the written language
 * A high volume of manufacture and trade with regions as far east as China and as far west as the Mediterranean basin.
 * The consolidation of the social traditions of patriarchal families and caste distinctions, the latter becoming more elaborated with the appearance of subcastes called //jati// usually based on occupation.
 * The emergence and spread of salvation-based religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and popular Hinduism.
 * The earliest of form of democracy, the best realization of which was found in Athens under the leadership of the statesman Pericles.
 * The establishment of hundreds of cities throughout the Mediterranean basin and southwest Asia.
 * Unique contributions to literature in the forms of mythology, poetry, drama, and essays.
 * The contributions of the rational philosophical thought of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle and later the Epicureans, the Skeptics, and the Stoics.
 * The concept of a republican form of government governed by a constitution and a fixed body of law that guaranteed the rights of citizens.
 * Elaborate transportation and communications networks with sophisticated roads, sea lanes linking port cities, and an imperial postal system.
 * Economically specialized regions, either in the development of cash crops for export or in localized industries.
 * New cities built throughout the empire with unprecedented levels of sanitation, comfort, and entertainment opportunities.
 * Widespread dissemination of philosophical beliefs and values, like Stoicism, and religions of salvation, like Christianity.